Construction technology, also known as construction tech  refers to the application of technology and innovation to improve the construction process, from design and planning to execution and maintenance. This field combines traditional construction practices with modern technologies, such as building information modeling (BIM), artificial intelligence (AI), internet of things (IoT), and data analytics, to increase efficiency, productivity, and quality while reducing costs and environmental impact.

Some examples of construction technology include:

1. Building Information Modeling (BIM): A digital representation of the physical and functional characteristics of a building or infrastructure project, used for design, construction, and operation.
2. Construction Management Software: Tools that help manage projects from planning to execution, including project scheduling, budgeting, and resource allocation.
3. Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): Used for visualization, simulation, and training in construction projects.
4. Robotics: Autonomous robots that can perform tasks such as inspection, maintenance, and material handling.
5. Drones: Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) used for surveying, monitoring, and inspection.
6. 3D Printing: The use of additive manufacturing technology to create complex structures and components.
7. Prefabricated Construction: The use of pre-assembled modules or components in construction projects.
8. Smart Buildings: Buildings equipped with sensors, automation systems, and data analytics to optimize energy efficiency and occupant comfort.
9. Construction Automation: The use of automation technology to streamline processes such as material handling, welding, and drilling.
10. Geospatial Technology: The use of geospatial data and analysis to improve construction site layout, excavation, and grading.

Benefits of Construction Technology:

1. Improved accuracy and precision
2. Increased efficiency and productivity
3. Reduced costs and waste
4. Enhanced collaboration and communication
5. Improved safety
6. Increased sustainability
7. Better quality control

process of purification,uses of water

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Technical Drawing Presentation and Practice
Book · January 2012
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Segun R. Bello
[MNSE, R. Engr. COREN]
Createspace.com
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Technical Drawing
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Presentation & Practice
Copyright © 2012 by Segun R. Bello
Federal College of Agriculture Ishiagu, 480001 Nigeria
segemi2002@gmail.com; bellraph95@yahoo.com
http://www.dominionpublishingstores.yolasite.com
http://www.segzybrap.web.com
+234 8068576763, +234 8062432694
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, electronics, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.
Dominion
Publishing Services
ISBN-13: 978-1481250122
10: 1481250124
First published in December 2012
Printed by Createspace US
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Dedication
To the glory of God Almighty
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Acknowledgements
Glory be to God Almighty, the author of life and the giver of knowledge. I
acknowledged the several authors and researchers whose wealth of experiences
documented and made available in book and journal prints forms, as well as
numerous materials available of the web.
Many thanks to all students, past and present, that had passed through my tutelage as
instructor and teacher for their contributions, criticisms and feed-backs on the series of
classroom lectures and practical experiences which are documented in this book.
Special thanks go to my wife, who had always back-up the realization of God’s plan
for me. She is a virtuous woman in class of her own. I am grateful for her
understanding and tolerance in taking full responsibility of running our home during
the scripting and review of this works.
I am grateful to my children, Ayomikun, Pelumi, Damilola and Adeola, who have
been so wonderful and cooperative during this period. I am encouraged and
strengthened by their prayers, my God shall surely reward them. Amen
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Content
Dedication............................................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ vi
Preface................................................................................................................................ xi
SECTION 1 Drawing Presentation ................................................ xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction to Technical Drawing .................................................. 15
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 15
1.2 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 15
1.3 Drawing language and standards ...................................................................... 16
1.4 Aim of drawing ..................................................................................................... 17
1.5 Types of drawing and views ............................................................................... 17
1.6 Engineering drawing requirements .................................................................... 18
1.7 Professional application of technical drawing ................................................... 19
1.8 Technical drawing and agricultural development .............................................. 19
1.9 Steps to planning drawing .................................................................................. 20
Exercise ............................................................................................................................. 20
Chapter 2 Drafting and Drawing Presentation.................................................. 21
2.1 Introduction to drafting ........................................................................................ 21
2.2 Drafting tools........................................................................................................ 21
2.3 Importance of drafting ......................................................................................... 22
2.4 Drafting practices................................................................................................. 23
2.5 Drafting aids/instruments .................................................................................... 24
2.6 Using the instruments ......................................................................................... 36
2.7 Drawing reproduction .......................................................................................... 45
2.8 Scales in drawing ................................................................................................ 46
2.9 Components of drawing ...................................................................................... 53
Exercise ............................................................................................................................. 54
Chapter 3 Lettering Principles and Practice ..................................................... 58
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 58
3.2 Importance of lettering ........................................................................................ 58
3.3 Types of lettering ................................................................................................. 58
3.4 Style of lettering ................................................................................................... 59
3.5 Lettering fonts in drawing.................................................................................... 59
3.6 Lines in lettering .................................................................................................. 59
3.7 Lettering practice ................................................................................................. 60
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3.8 Drawing lettering lines ......................................................................................... 61
Exercise ............................................................................................................................. 62
Chapter 4 Principles of Dimensioning ................................................................ 64
4.1 Importance of dimensioning ................................................................................ 64
4.2 Guidelines for dimensioning................................................................................ 64
4.3 Types of dimensions............................................................................................ 64
4.4 Components of dimension .................................................................................. 65
4.5 Dimension placement .......................................................................................... 65
4.6 Rules of dimension .............................................................................................. 68
4.7 Types of dimensioning ........................................................................................ 70
4.8 Dimensioning best practices ............................................................................... 79
Exercise ............................................................................................................................. 80
SECTION 2 Drawing Geometry & Projections............................................. 83
Introduction......................................................................................................................... 85
Chapter 5 Geometrical Figures: Properties and Construction ................... 87
5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 87
5.2 Point...................................................................................................................... 87
5.3 Lines, properties, application and construction ................................................. 88
5.3.1 Line styles ............................................................................................................ 89
5.3.2 Forms of lines ...................................................................................................... 90
5.3.3 Types of lines ....................................................................................................... 90
5.3.4 Line applications .................................................................................................. 92
5.3.5 Line drawing ......................................................................................................... 93
5.3.6 Line construction.................................................................................................. 94
5.3.7 Loci: Properties and construction ..................................................................... 101
5.4 Plane and solid loci............................................................................................ 104
5.5 Plane figures ...................................................................................................... 105
5.5.1 Angles and their properties ............................................................................... 106
5.5.2 Triangles, their properties and construction .................................................... 108
5.6 Quadrilaterals, their properties and construction ............................................ 114
5.7 Polygon, their properties and construction ...................................................... 117
5.8 Circles, their properties and construction ........................................................ 124
5.8.1 Circle geometry.................................................................................................. 127
5.8.2 Tangency and normalcy construction .............................................................. 134
Exercise ........................................................................................................................... 138
Chapter 6 Projections in Engineering Drawings ............................................. 143
6.1 Drawing presentation ........................................................................................ 143
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6.2 Features of projection ....................................................................................... 145
6.3 Projection of points ............................................................................................ 147
6.4 Projection of lines .............................................................................................. 147
Chapter 7 Descriptive Geometry............................................................... 154
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 154
7.2 Orthographic projection..................................................................................... 154
7.3 Multiview projection ........................................................................................... 156
7.4 Principles of first angle orthographic projection .............................................. 164
7.5 Principles of third angle orthographic projection ............................................. 169
7.6 Symbols for orthographic projection ................................................................ 172
7.7 Comparing 1st and 3rd angle projection ............................................................ 173
6.5 Auxiliary projection ............................................................................................ 173
Exercise ........................................................................................................................... 181
Chapter 8 Pictorial Drawing and Construction .............................................. 183
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 183
8.2 Projection of pictorial drawing........................................................................... 183
8.3 Isometric drawing .............................................................................................. 184
8.4 Oblique drawing................................................................................................. 189
8.5 Axonometric drawing......................................................................................... 191
8.6 Perspective drawing .......................................................................................... 192
8.7 Diametric drawing .............................................................................................. 197
8.8 Model building drawings ................................................................................... 197
8.9 Assembly drawings ........................................................................................... 199
8.10 Sketch drawings ................................................................................................ 201
8.11 Comparing projections ...................................................................................... 208
Exercise ........................................................................................................................... 209
SECTION 3 Conic Sections & Surface Development ............................. 212
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 214
Chapter 9 Conic Sections and Construction .............................................. 215
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 215
9.2 Construction of conic sections.......................................................................... 218
9.2.1 Ellipse and its construction ............................................................................... 218
9.2.2 Hyperbola and its construction ......................................................................... 232
9.2.3 Parabola and its construction ........................................................................... 236
Exercise ........................................................................................................................... 242
Chapter 10 Solid Sections and Development .......................................... 244
10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 244
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10.2 Types of sections ............................................................................................... 247
10.3 Hatching ............................................................................................................. 251
10.4 Sections of solid................................................................................................. 254
10.5 Surface development ........................................................................................ 262
10.5.1 Full surface development of geometrical solids .......................................... 263
10.5.2 Development of lower surfaces of geometrical solids ................................ 265
10.5.3 Interpenetration of surfaces.......................................................................... 271
Exercise ........................................................................................................................... 277
References....................................................................................................................... 279
Notes ................................................................................................................................ 280
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Preface
Engineering/technical drawing is a pre-requisite course for all who wish to pursue a
career in engineering profession especially in design and construction program.
Emphasis is placed on media drafting, lettering, and alphabet of lines, geometric
construction, sketching, and multiview drawings. Students learn traditional drafting
techniques through the study of geometric construction at which time they are
introduced to computer aided drafting and design.
This book is therefore designed to help students acquire requisite knowledge and
practical skills in engineering/technical drawing practices. The contents were
designed to prepare students for technical, diploma and degree examinations in
engineering, engineering technology and technical vocations in other professions in
the monotechnics, polytechnics and universities.
Therefore, when armed with this book, students should be able to;
Understand the principles and techniques of drawing, presentation and projections
Understand drawings and its applications to geometry; plane or solid
Understand the principles and application of free hand sketching
Understand development of surfaces and conic-sections
At the end of each chapter are lists of practical exercises that will help students perfect
their skill and proficiency in technical works.
Segun R. Bello
480001, Nigeria
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SECTION 1
Drawing Presentation
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Page | 15
Chapter 1
Introduction to Technical Drawing
1.1 Introduction
One of the best ways to communicate one's ideas is through pictures, graphic
illustration or drawings. Details of engineering innovations and technical inventions
are hid in drawing for the purpose of safeguarding them. Technical/engineering
drawing is a means of communicating shapes, sizes, positions and proportion,
features and precision of physical objects.
The following descriptions can be used to describe the field of technical/engineering
drawing and presentation:
 Engineering drawing is graphical representation of physical objects and their
relationship.
 It is a universal language of engineering used in design processes for solving
problems quickly and accurately by visualizing objects and conducting analysis.
 It can also be said to be a graphic representation of objects and structures used to
solve problems which involve special relationships.
 It is a mode of thinking in which two-dimensional projections are used to visualize
three-dimensional situations.
 It is also a means of describing and defining processes which verbal expressions
cannot adequately conveyed.
 It is therefore an extension of language, and as such, an essential part of education
in a technological society.
 Engineering drawing communicate product design and manufacturing
information in a reliable and unambiguous manner regardless of language
1.2 Introduction
Drawings are used in all fields of engineering (agriculture, mechanical, civil,
architectural, electrical, aerospace, etc.). The types of drawings we will be creating in
this book are mechanical drawings, but the concepts are all transferable to the other
engineering fields. Engineering drawing is concerned with imparting precise
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information hence it is understandable that neatness and accuracy should play an
important part in its practice. Beautifully copied engineering drawings are of little
value if the principles behind the work are not fully understood and applied.
These principles can be learned and practiced by using freehand, mechanical, or
computer aided design (CAD) methods. The ability to read drawing is the most
important requirement of all technical people in engineering profession. Below are the
basics concepts of engineering drawings.
1.3 Drawing language and standards
Engineering drawing is a form of language in its own right with rules and signs. Just
as it is applicable to any language, certain rules (or standards) must be followed in
producing any drawing. These rules/standards define how shapes and position of
object should be represented; for instance, the order of orthographic views and
different line types has rules and specific position in order to fully describe such
object. They also define how a part should be dimensioned or tolerance.
These standards are developed by some institutions or governing agencies specifically
set up for the purpose of formulating standards globally accepted and subject to
update on a 5 year basis. These organizations or governing agencies include:
1. BSI - British Standards Institute
2. ASME-American Society of Automotive Engineers
3. ANSI- American National Standards Institute
4. DIN - Deutsches Institut fur Normung (Germany)
5. ISO - International Standards Organization
The governing agency responsible for setting the mechanical drawing standards and
practices used in creating technical drawings of mechanical parts and assemblies is
the American Society of Automotive Engineers (ASME).Considering the ASME
standards for example, there are a number of documents published by ASME that
cover various aspects of mechanical drawings, here are a few of them:
1. ASME Y14.100 -2004 Engineering drawing practices
2. ASME Y14.1 -1995 Decimal inch drawing sheet size and format
3. ASME Y14.3M –Multi and sectional view drawings
4. ASME Y14.4M -1989 Pictorial drawing
5. ASME Y14.5M –1994 Geometric dimensioning and tolerance
6. ASME Y14.13M -1981 Mechanical spring representation
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It is important to follow these standards to ensure your drawings are interpreted
correctly by others. Always consult the standard when in doubt!
1.4 Aim of drawing
The main purpose of engineering drawings is to communicate to other engineers,
machinists, etc. Drawings do the communication best merely because a picture is
worth a thousand words. Giving all of the information needed to make the product
and being accurate in that information is the main goal. Engineers are very picky
about their drawings and must pay attention to detail.
1.5 Types of drawing and views
There are terms commonly associated with graphic and engineering design drawings
in various forms and are meant to express different ideas as indicated below:
Diagram: This type of drawing depicts the function of a system represented in
drawing form
Sketching: This generally refers to freehand drawing without the aid of drawing
instrument
Drawing: This term usually means using instruments or drawing aids ranging from
compasses to computers to bring precision to an expressed conception in
form of graphics.
Drawing list: This is the list of cross references drawings that all combined to produce
an single product
Parts list (bill of materials): Part listing in drawing shows material, number/quantity
and provides reference number of various components
Assembly drawing: This shows how an individual parts are combined, refers to parts
list
Design layout drawing: This represents broad principles of feasible solution
Arrangement drawing: This type of drawing shows finished arrangement of assemblies,
including functional andperformance requirements
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Detail drawing: This is a single part drawing containing all information for fabrication.
When there is a great disparity between feature sizes, or views are
overcrowded with dimensions, a detail view can be used to capture the
feature(s) of interest and display them in a removed view of greater scale.
Figure 1-1: Detail view
1.6 Engineering drawing requirements
Engineering drawing requirement are conditions that a specific drawing must meet in
order to conform to global standards in such field. Such requirements include:
1. Unambiguity and clarity: All engineering drawings must be unambiguous and clear.
Only one interpretation is possible.
2. Completeness: Every drawing must provide all information for all stages of
manufacture. i.e., detailed drawings, assembly drawings, bill of materials
3. Suitability for duplication: Such drawing must be suitable for duplication. It must
have suitable scale and clarity such that the drawing can be copied – even micro
copied – without losing quality.
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4. Language independent: The drawing must be language or Words independent and
should only be used in the title block; words should be replaced by symbols.
5. Conformity to standards: Your drawing must be conformable to known standards.
Highest standards are ISO as numerous countries learn these rules.
1.7 Professional application of technical drawing
Figure 1-2 below give a list (not limited to the displayed groups) of professional
groups that are directly linked to engineering graphics in the execution of their daily
routing assignment.
Figure 1-2: Engineering drawing partners
1.8 Technical drawing and agricultural development
In the following areas, technical drawing plays very vital roles in agricultural
production practice.
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1. Farm planning and field layout: Technical drawing provides the knowledge of
mapping out and field measurements when laying out foundation of structures.
2. Surveying: The knowledge of the topography of an area help in the determination
of the type of farming system to adopt.
3. Employment opportunities are created for draughtsman in the farm due to their
knowledge of technical drawing.
4. Farm structures design and construction were gained through the basic knowledge
of technical drawing
5. Implement design: Preliminary sketch of farm implements and tools aids their
design and construction in the workshop.
6. Machinery repairs: Faults diagnosis and repairs on some machinery can only be
done by tracing the diagram of the design details on the machine layout.
1.9 Steps to planning drawing
Unplanned drawing makes interpretation cumbersome and ambiguous bearing in
mind that drawing materials could be costly. Therefore starting engineering drawing
you should plan how to make the best use of your space. It is important to think about
the number of views your drawing will have and how much space you will use of the
paper. Consider the followings:
 Try to make maximum use of the available space.
 If a view has lots of detail, try and make that view as large as possible. If necessary,
draw that view on a separate sheet.
 If you intend to add dimensions to the drawing, remember to leave enough space
around the drawing for them to be added later.
 If you are working with inks on film, plan the order in which you are drawing the
lines. For example you don't want to have to place your ruler on wet ink
Exercise
1. The practice of draughts manship is critical to the development of the
agricultural sector. Critically justify this statement
2. In planning your routine daily schedule the place of graphic design and
illustration cannot the overemphasis. Enumerate some of the ways this will
enhance your plan.
3. Make a list of some engineering drawing standards applicable to your
profession and how each is applied to effective professional practice.
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